This complete guide walks you through the entire winemaking process from start to finish. It covers the key stages in a clear, practical way, explaining not just what to do, but why you’re doing it. This is a pretty full on guide and should be comprehensive - if something is unclear don’t hesitate to reach out for assistance. Ourselves or your local brewing or winemaking store should be able to assist.
The aim of this guide is to give you a solid foundation you can confidently follow during your first time winemaking, while also helping you understand the decisions that shape your final wine.
Before working with grapes, it is essential to understand that sanitation is the foundation of winemaking. Grape juice is a nutrient-rich liquid that readily supports the growth of yeast, bacteria, and mould. The goal of the winemaker is not to eliminate all microbes, but to ensure that only the desired organisms are able to dominate the process. Usually, this is just yeast but can vary significantly.
All equipment that comes into contact with grapes, juice, or wine must be thoroughly cleaned and sanitised. Cleaning removes visible dirt and residue, while sanitising reduces microbial populations to safe levels. Sanitiser alone will not work on soiled equipment, so cleaning must always come first. Use a dedicated cleaner at the recommended dosage rate. If you are unsure what cleaner to use reach out to us or your local home-brew store for advice.
Once your equipment is clean rinse it with clean, potable water to remove any residual cleaner. This is important as many cleaners are highly alkaline or contain detergents which can stop the sanitiser from working.
Then use a food-grade sanitiser to sanitise the cleaned equipment. Again, follow the usage guidelines on the sanitiser label as they will differ depending on formulation and manufacturer. Its always best practice to have equipment cleaned and rinsed prior to use then sanitise the same day, ideally just prior to use.
Before harvest day, ensure that fermentation vessels, airlocks, siphons, presses, and all tools are cleaned, sanitised, and ready for use. Having everything prepared in advance reduces rushed decisions and accidental contamination. This is also a good time to check your equipment is in good condition. You don’t want to be rushing around at last minute to fix broken equipment.
The quality of the finished wine is limited by the quality of the grapes. Grapes should be picked when sugar, acidity, and flavour maturity are all at the right level. When you hear people talking about a ‘vintage’ this is essentially referring to the growing season. A good vintage produces grapes with ideal sugar, acidity, and phenolic character. If sugar content, acidity or phenolic character are not yet at the right level, wait until they are before picking the grapes. We will go into how to assess these traits in a moment.
Sugar content is typically measured in degrees Brix by winemakers, with most table red wines harvested between 22 and 26° Brix. Sugar content can also be measured in specific gravity or baume, there is no right or wrong answer; its simply a personal preference. Grapes below this sugar range tend to produce wines that are thin and overly acidic, while grapes significantly above this range can produce wines with excessive alcohol and fermentation difficulties. When measuring sugar before picking grapes you can either use a hydrometer or a refractometer.
Acidity is best assessed using a pH meter. For red wines, a pH between 3.2 and 3.6 is generally ideal. pH affects not only flavour perception but also microbial stability and the effectiveness of sulphur dioxide (we’ll get to that later). Wines with higher pH are more vulnerable to spoilage and require more attention to correct the pH related issues. If your wine pH is out of range you can add food grade acid such as malic acid, or tartaric acid. When using a pH meter ensure to follow the manufacturers instructions and always calibrate the pH meter before every use.
Phenolic ripeness should also be checked. This is done by tasting the grapes rather than relying solely on numbers and measurement tools. The skins should be pliable rather than tough, the seeds should be brown and nutty rather than green and bitter. The grapes should be in good condition and just look good. This isn’t very analytical, it’s more of a feeling. We would suggest using sugar content as the main priority, pH and ripeness are more secondary, but are still Important.
It is also important to distinguish between wine grapes and table grapes. Wine grapes typically have smaller berries, thicker skins, higher sugar concentration, and higher acidity than table grapes. When tasted fresh, wine grapes may seem tart, astringent, or even unpleasant compared to table grapes, but these characteristics are essential for producing balanced wine after fermentation. Table grapes, by contrast, are bred to be eaten fresh and therefore have larger berries, thinner skins, lower acidity, and more diluted flavour when fermented. While table grapes can technically be fermented, they rarely produce good or stable wine without significant correction.
Once the grapes have reached the desired level of ripeness, they should be harvested as quickly and gently as possible. Harvesting in the early morning is preferred as cooler fruit is less prone to oxidation and microbial activity. Grapes should be kept shaded and quickly transported to where they will be fermented. Prolonged exposure to heat or crushing during transport can lead to premature fermentation and can allow spoilage microbes to get a foothold on the grapes. Sort the grapes to remove leaves, insects, mouldy bunches, and severely damaged fruit. This step can significantly improve the quality of your wine, if possible don’t skip this step.
For beginners, destemming is strongly recommended. Stems contain high levels of tannins and can contribute harsh, green flavours if used incorrectly. While some winemakers choose to include a portion of stems to adjust flavour, this technique needs experience and careful fruit selection. Its also not a suitable stylistic choice for all wine varieties.
As a general rule you will need to pick approximately twice the weight of grapes as you will end up with in wine. For example if you pick 100kg of grapes you will end up with approximately 50 litres of wine.
At this point you should be left with ripe, healthy grapes. Crushing breaks the skins and releases the juice while ideally leaving the seeds intact. If you crush too aggressively you can break the seeds and extract harsh, bitter tannins. The goal is to create a must made up of juice, skins and seeds with as little unnecessary damage as possible.
Immediately after crushing, sulphite should be added to the must unless you are intentionally carrying out a wild fermentation. Wild fermentation can produce excellent results, but it can also lead to spoilage or fermentation problems. For that reason, beginners are usually better off avoiding it.
Sulphite comes in several forms including campden tablets, potassium metabisulphite, K-meta and sodium metabisulphite. All of these are simply different ways of adding SO2, or sulphur dioxide, to the wine. When people talk about sulphites, sulphur or sulphur dioxide, this is what they are referring to.
Some people choose to avoid sulphites for health or allergy reasons. It is important to note that many allergy and hangover symptoms are incorrectly blamed on sulphites. Peer reviewed research shows that sulphites are not the main cause of wine headaches or hangovers in most people. The primary causes are the alcohol itself, acetaldehyde produced during alcohol metabolism, and other fermentation by-products known as congeners. Histamines may affect sensitive individuals, but they are not the main driver for most people. Sulphites can, however, trigger asthma symptoms in people with asthma, so care should be taken not to inhale the powder.
SO2 protects the must from oxidation and suppresses unwanted microbes that could otherwise dominate before the cultured yeast is added. Sulphur dioxide is highly effective against bacteria, moulds and other spoilage organisms. Most commercial wine yeast strains are relatively resistant to normal SO2 levels.
A typical sulphite addition at crush is 30-50 ppm, which is 30-50 mg per litre, for fresh grapes in good condition. If the grapes are mouldy, rotten or in poor condition, 70-100 ppm is more appropriate. This addition suppresses the wild microbes naturally present on grape skins and gives the selected yeast the best chance to establish itself. A significant portion of the sulphite added at this stage binds to solids, proteins and phenolic compounds and will not remain as free SO2 in the finished wine. Over time, some of it will also dissipate.
If you’re using campden tablets the dosing is much simpler. Add 1 tablet per 5L of must.
After adding sulphite, allow the must to rest for 12 to 24 hours before pitching yeast. This gives the sulphur dioxide time to suppress wild organisms while dropping to a level that will not inhibit the cultured yeast.
If you’re making white wine you will now press the must. If you’re making red wine skip this step.
In white winemaking, pressing is typically carried out immediately after crushing. The purpose is to separate the juice from the grape solids, including skins, seeds, and stems, as quickly as possible in order to minimise tannin and phenolic extraction.
Unlike making red wine, extended skin contact is generally avoided. Most white wines are valued for clarity, freshness, and an overall bright character. Prolonged maceration can introduce bitterness, excessive phenolics, and unwanted colour, which is undesirable for most white wine styles.
After crushing, the grapes are pressed gently to extract the juice. Basket presses, screw presses, ratchet presses, and hydro presses are all suitable for small-scale production. Pressure should be applied gradually, as excessive force can rupture seeds and release tannins which contribute a similar character and mouth puckering to sucking on a tea bag.
The first portion of juice that’s collected, often referred to as free-run, is typically the most delicate and aromatic. As pressure increases, later fractions may contain slightly higher phenolic content. Some winemakers separate these portions for blending later, although many small-scale producers combine them.
Once pressed, the juice is quickly transferred to a fermentation vessel, usually a glass demijohn or stainless steel variable-capacity (VC) tank. The vessel should be filled close to the top to minimise oxygen exposure. The juice is often allowed to settle through the use of fining agents, cold settling or just time before fermentation begins, which removes solids that made there way through the pressing process. This can improve stability, minimise astringency and vegetal flavours and give the wine a ‘brighter’ flavour. If you have an old fridge we would recommend clarifying your white wine juice.
Although most white wines are pressed immediately, certain aromatic varieties may benefit from a short period of skin contact prior to pressing to enhance flavours. Extended maceration is uncommon in white winemaking, with orange wine being a notable exception. Realistically, its a flavour decision and its completely up to you.
This step is for red wine, if you have made white wine proceed to the next step, pitching yeast.
A cold soak is an optional step performed between crushing and the start of fermentation. During this period, the must is held at low temperature to encourage the extraction of colour and aroma compounds while limiting the extraction of harsh tannins.
To conduct a cold soak, the must is cooled to a temperature between 8 and 15°C and held within this range for two to five days. At these temperatures, yeast activity is suppressed and fermentation does not begin. The must should be kept covered, with minimal headspace, to reduce oxygen exposure and microbial risk. Even during a cold soak, the cap of skins will rise to the surface. This cap should be gently punched down once per day using a sanitised plunger or rake to keep the skins moist and prevent mould growth. Aggressive extraction is not desired at this stage.
A cold soak (cold maceration) should only be attempted when temperature control is reliable and fruit condition is excellent. If fermentation begins unintentionally, or if signs of spoilage appear, the cold soak should be ended immediately.
Yeast selection plays a pretty significant role in the flavour, aroma, and structure of the finished wine. Commercial wine yeast strains are recommended for beginners because they provide predictable fermentation performance and reduce the risk of spoilage.
If you are making wine in a warm climate or just want a relatively safe, fool-proof strain we would recommend using EC-1118. EC-1118 is technically a champagne and sparkling wine yeast but tends to produce great wines even in a range of really tough conditions such as poor temperature management, low pH conditions, high SO2, or low nutrient environments. It also still lets the wine terroir shine so it’s usually the best option for new winemakers. If you want to experiment with different yeast strains and are making smaller batches (25-150L) the following yeast strains are great.
There are many other strains of wine yeast that will all have their own quirks and flavour profiles. We’d highly recommend experimenting once you are comfortable with the process.
Before addition to the must, dry yeast should be properly rehydrated to ensure high viability. Rehydration is typically performed in 10x the yeasts weight of clean water at 35 to 40°C. The yeast is sprinkled onto the water surface and left undisturbed for approximately ten minutes before being gently stirred. Small amounts of must may then be added to equalise temperature before the yeast is pitched. If the manufacturer suggests a different approach you should follow that procedure instead.
Once rehydrated, the yeast should be added promptly to the must. Yeast nutrients are commonly added at this stage to provide sufficient nitrogen and vitamins, reducing the risk of sluggish or stuck fermentation. Nutrients should be added based on need. Some wine yeast have higher nitrogen requirements than other strains. If selecting a yeast strain with a high nitrogen requirement we would highly recommend adding nutrient at this stage.
Nutrients can get quiet technical quiet fast. To keep things simple we would suggest a general winemaking nutrient blend at the recommended dosage.
Primary fermentation is the stage in which yeast converts sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The temperature at which fermentation occurs has a major impact on flavour development and extraction.
For red wines, ideal fermentation temperatures generally range from 22°C to 28°C. At these temperatures the yeast will throw off some unique esters and aromatics. The key is to match the temperature to the yeast strain you are using. If your yeast ferments best at 16°C to 20°C, maintain the fermentation within that range. If you cannot control temperature, choose a yeast that performs well at the natural temperature of your fermentation vessel.
During fermentation, carbon dioxide causes the grape skins to rise and form a cap on top of the must. This cap must be managed with regular punch-downs, usually one to three times per day. Proper cap management ensures even extraction, prevents mould, and helps control fermentation temperature.
Monitor fermentation progress by measuring sugar levels and temperature periodically. You can use °Brix or specific gravity, depending on which system you are most comfortable with. Fermentation is considered complete when the specific gravity reaches 1.010 or lower, or 1°Brix or lower, and remains stable over several days. Consistent readings confirm that fermentation has fully finished. If the sugar level is still changing the wine is still fermenting.
If you’re making a red wine its now time to press the wine. When you press is decided mainly off taste as discussed in the maceration section.
When making red wine, pressing takes place after fermentation rather than before it. The juice ferments together with the grape skins, sometimes a portion of the stems, to extract colour, flavour, and tannin.
The length of skin contact, plays a central role in shaping the final wine. Shorter maceration periods produce softer, fruit-forward wines with moderate tannin structure. Extended maceration, which can last from several days to several weeks, increases tannin extraction and phenolic complexity, resulting in wines with greater structure and ageing potential.
Most winemakers decide when to press based on taste, texture, and tannin development rather than following a fixed timeline.
When the desired balance has been achieved, the wine is separated from the solids through pressing. Small screw presses, ratchet presses, and hydro presses are commonly used. In smaller setups, a brew-in-a-bag method can be used to contain the skins and allow manual pressing if a dedicated press is not available.
Free-run wine, which drains naturally from the press before pressure is applied, is generally softer, more aromatic, and lower in tannins. Press wine, obtained through the gradual application of pressure, contains higher levels of tannins and phenolic compounds. Many winemakers keep these fractions separate and blend them later to achieve the desired balance and structure.
After pressing, the wine should be transferred to an airtight vessel such as a glass demijohn, a barrel or stainless steel tank to complete fermentation, settle, mature, and condition. The receiving vessel should be filled as close to brimful as possible to reduce headspace and limit oxygen exposure, as oxygen can negatively affect wine quality.
Malolactic fermentation is a secondary process in which malic acid, the sharp acid naturally present in grapes, is converted into lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This softens the wine’s overall acidity, creating a rounder, creamier mouthfeel that can make the wine feel fuller and more balanced. Malolactic fermentation is not common for small hobby winemakers, mainly due to price of malolactic bacteria cultures but is usually done in commercial wineries.
MLF can also influence wine flavour: it often produces subtle buttery, creamy, or nutty notes due to the production of compounds such as diacetyl. Winemakers choose whether to encourage or prevent MLF depending on the style they are aiming for. For example, most red wines undergo full MLF to soften acidity and round the wine, while crisp white wines like Sauvignon Blanc often bypass MLF to preserve freshness and that crisp acidity.
Once the primary and malolactic (if applicable) fermentations are complete, sulphur dioxide should be added to protect the wine during aging. The appropriate level of sulphite depends on the wine’s pH, with higher pH wines requiring higher sulphite levels for the same degree of protection. The chart below shows the sulphite addition for Potassium Metabisulphite powder or campden tablets based on wine pH.
It’s a good time to note that if you plan on adding sulphites multiple times you will need to measure the sulphite levels before adding more. This is a more advanced winemaking technique and won’t be discussed here.
Volume of wine: 80 L
Final pH: 3.2 after pressing
Target free SO₂: 13–21 ppm → equivalent to 0.02 g/L potassium metabisulphite
Total PMS needed: 0.02 g/L × 80 L = 1.6 grams
This addition stabilises the wine by inhibiting spoilage organisms and reducing oxidation risk. When you hear stories of wine turning into vinegar, usually with natural ferments, its a lack of SO2, allowing acetobacter, bacteria that produce acetic acid (vinegar) that converts alcohol into acid in the presence of oxygen.
Aging allows tannins to polymerise, flavours to integrate, and the wine to stabilise. Wine may be aged in stainless steel, neutral containers, or oak, depending on the desired style. Throughout aging, containers must be kept topped up to minimise oxygen exposure. Periodic racking removes sediment and helps maintain freshness. Racking can introduce large amounts of oxygen however, so be careful as to do so in a way that minimises oxygen. Aging duration varies widely, from several months to several years.
During ageing French oak chips, chunks or staves can be added to the wine to add a layered oak and subtle vanilla flavour that also aids in reducing some harshness. Like most things in winemaking we would suggest periodically tasting the wine then removing the oak when the desired flavour intensity is reached.
Before bottling, it is a good idea that the wine is both clear and stable, free from haze, sediment, or particles that could affect appearance or flavour over time. While many wines clarify naturally during aging, winemakers often use fining agents to speed up the process or address specific flavour issues such as excess tannin, proteins, or haze-forming compounds. Finings can also soften the wine and reduce astringency by dropping out tannins and phenols.
Fining works by binding to particles, causing them to coagulate and settle to the bottom, making them easier to remove. Each fining agent works differently, and their effects can vary depending on the wine, so it is important to test fining on small samples before treating the entire batch.
Bottling is the final stage of winemaking and requires careful attention to cleanliness and oxygen pickup. Bottles and closures must be sanitised, and the wine should be handled gently to avoid unnecessary oxygen pickup.
A final sulphite adjustment is often made shortly before bottling to help protect the wine from oxidation and microbial spoilage during storage. For home winemakers who are not measuring free or total SO₂ precisely, a good guideline is to add roughly 1/2 of the sulphite that was added after pressing, depending on the style and freshness of the wine. This dosage should be decided from the dosing chart below. If you are drinking this wine young you can use 1/3 of the dose.
After bottling, wine should be stored in a cool, dark place, away from temperature fluctuations and sunlight, to preserve flavour and stability. Properly stored red wines will continue to develop in the bottle over time, with tannins softening and flavours integrating.
Winemaking rewards patience, attention to detail, and a willingness to learn from each batch. Small adjustments in temperature, timing, and handling can make a noticeable difference in the finished wine.
No two wines will ever turn out exactly the same, and that is part of the craft. Focus on good sanitation, careful measurement, and tasting regularly. With experience, your confidence and consistency will continue to improve.
Most importantly, enjoy the process and the finished wine. Each bottle reflects the work you have put in, and each vintage is an opportunity to refine your technique and develop your style.
